The Importance of the Diary for a Study of Archbishop Laud Essay Example

The Importance of the Diary for a Study of Archbishop Laud Paper William Laud, Archbishop of Canterbury from 1633 has traditionally been seen as one of the twin pillars of Stuart despotism1, and the councillor whose influence cost Charles his crown. Though a great deal of contention has surrounded these, and other assumptions about the Archbishop in recent years, the diary, which Laud kept between the years of 1602 and 1643 has not been widely used as a source for his study. It is important to consider Laud not only as primate, but also as an individual in order to obtain the fullest possible understanding of him. As Gaunt has argued that Laud is one of those unfortunate historical figures whose biography has been penned largely from the writings of his enemies2, I feel that an attempt should be made to study Laud solely through his own writings, but in particular his diary, as it was Pynnes falsification of the text after he seized it in 1643 that led to such negative views about the Archbishop, and tainted contemporary and even later historical opinion. Through examination of the diary, I wish to ascertain what can be discovered about Lauds aims and beliefs, his significant relationships, his fears and crucially, his character, and how all of these affected his policies and decisions. The primary source for the dissertation will be Lauds diary, with the composition chiefly focused upon perceptions raised from it, using Lauds other works, letters and charges, as well as Prynnes commentary of the diary and Clarendons account of Laud to supplement these notions. We will write a custom essay sample on The Importance of the Diary for a Study of Archbishop Laud specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on The Importance of the Diary for a Study of Archbishop Laud specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on The Importance of the Diary for a Study of Archbishop Laud specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer However this may mean that a large proportion of the dissertation will be theoretical as much of my argument will be based on what can be inferred from what Laud does, and even fails to record. A study of the diary is particularly important to me because I find Laud to be a fascinating character around whom much historiographical argument is centred. He was pivotal to the breakdown of the Personal Rule, and I believe it will be particularly interesting to examine events from his perspective. . Religion has been labelled a fundamental and deep-rooted cause of the English Civil war3; hence there has been much debate over the key priorities and aims of William Laud, who as Archbishop of Canterbury from 1633, played a crucial role in the formation and enforcement of religious policy during the 1630s. Historians, such as McGee, have long claimed that Lauds outlook compromised of three central features; he set himself firmly against public theological controversy and believed in the benefits of ceremony. Underlying and informing these was his deep conviction that the Reformation had deprived clergymen of authority restoration of the clerical estate to its rightful place was absolutely necessary4. As evidence exists within the diary which supports this argument, each of these directives will be considered in turn through an examination of the text, in an attempt to determine the strength of Lauds ecclesiastical aims, and ascertain if there was, as McGee claims, a key priority within these. It is manifest that Laud believed the prevention of theological debate was imperative if order and stability were to be brought to the Church of England; an objective which led him to pursue a fierce campaign against radical opinion, focused particularly on Puritans. By rejecting the common forms of worships, Laud thought that they segregated themselves from the community and encouraged religious controversy, and were thus acting as a fifth column within the church; these are dangerous men, they are a scattered company5. Preaching, to Puritans the essential task of the ministry, was to Laud one such dangerous source of contention in need of regulation, a mindset which is palpable throughout the diary, for example 1625, he writes of the schedule he compiled at the Duke of Buckinghams request, in which the names of many Churchmen were marked with the letters O. and P. 6, in order that the King should be advised when appointing clerics as to which were Orthodox, and which were Puritan, and therefore suitable and unsuitable respectively. Aware that the Puritan laity were able to increase their influence over religion by financing lecturers from impropriated titles; lecturers who were often chosen to reflect their patrons preferment rather than uphold the articles of the church, Laud resolved to overthrow the feoffment, dangerous to both Church and State, an irrefutably strong intention given that he ranked it second in the extensive list of Things which I have projected to if God bless me in them7,written at the back of his diary. True to Lauds suspicions, in 1632 Attorney General William Noy uncovered that many lecturers paid for by the feoffees for impropriations, the City organisation involved with the buying up of church tithes and patronages, remained accountable to them, leading to allegations that the feoffees were an illegal corporation which was attempting to create a church within a church, outside the authority of the King. Noting in February 1632 his relief that the feoffees for impropriations were dissolved in the Chequer Chamber, Lauds adds that they were the main instrument for the Puritan faction to undo the Church8, which taken alongside his diary entry of 1638, the tumults in Scotland about the Service-Book offered to be brought in hath now brought that king down in danger. No question, but theres a great concurrence between them and the Puritan party in England9, conclusively demonstrates his deeply-held and unwavering belief that Puritans were engaged in organised political activity to destabilise the Caroline regime. Thus, despite the assertions of other ministers, such as Archbishop Abbott, that there is not in the Church of England, left any inconformable minister, which appeareth10, it is evident from the diary that Laud in no way shared this view, and instead set himself firmly against the danger posed by theological controversy which he believed Puritans, in particular, engendered. The diary also demonstrates the emphasis Laud placed on the prevention of predestination discussion, which by start of the Personal Rule had become a serious and explosive issue within the public and political sphere. Richard Montagus, A Gagg for the New Gospel, published in 1624, had ignited debate on the matter through his controversial Arminian assertion that the Church of England hath not taught it, doth not believe it, hath opposed it11. Though Charles and his Privy Council went to lengths to quieten controversy thereafter, Laud remained fearful that the political repercussions of the cause, book and opinions of Richard Montagu would constitute what he described as, a cloud arising and threatening the Church of England12. Attempts to control the destabilising impact of theological debate culminated in a royal proclamation in 1629 which banned discussion of predestination, as Charles and Laud believed that the way to secure orthodoxy was not to prove the true doctrine, but to silence all disputation which could lead to a re-opening of public debate. However, there has been much historical debate as to whom was truly impacted by the proclamation; Kevin Sharpe has argued that Laud himself was indifferent to the varying abstractions of predestination, as his main attachment was to uniformity of worship rather than the minutiae of theological dispute13, and thus where predestinarian debate was curbed, it was done so in an unbiased manner, a view supported by Julian Davies, who uses the Woodstock hearing of August 1631 as the foundation for his debate, asserting that it is here that Lauds theological attitude is most convincingly illustrated. At the hearing, Charles personally oversaw the case of several Oxford clerics accused of delivering Calvinist statements in direct contravention of the royal proclamation against predestination preaching. During proceedings, allegations were made that whilst these men had been silenced and punished for their beliefs, others had been freely permitted to express Arminian views, causing Charles, having ever desired that those points should be forborne on both sides indifferently, to demand of Laud the truth of the matter. Faced with Charles intervention, Laud made a solemn promise before God that he had upon all occasions required that those who preached either way should be proceeded with indifferently14. Davies and Sharpe have been content to take these words at face value, and indeed there is nothing in the diary that directly suggests Lauds subjective stance on the matter of predestination; his account of the hearing, though lengthy, is wholly factual, and nowhere does he record his own theological views or express any opinion on the issue, which lends weight to Sharpes claim that Laud did not debate doctrine because it was not of great interest to him15. David Como, on the other hand, refutes this claim and instead argues that Laud was engaged in a systematic policy to cut down Calvinist discourse, and that his assertions of impartiality at Woodstock were for the benefit of the manuscript of proceedings, which he knew would be printed and circulated, and were thus little more than a deliberate attempt to manipulate public opinion and quell rumours of unjust treatment towards anti-Laudians16. It is evident that Laud placed a huge amount of importance on the Woodstock hearing, as it is one of only eleven events that he lists in his days of observance to me at the fore of his diary, meriting a place beside incidents such as the Duke of Buckinghams death and the birth of Charles II. It must therefore be questioned why Laud should place so much significance upon Woodstock; if Como is to be believed, perhaps Laud recognised it as the key moment in which his neutrality on the issue of predestination was publicly accepted by the King and key privy councillors, despite the Arminian gloss he was in fact promoting on the articles of religion. However this is little more than an assumption as evidence on the issue is not wholly conclusive, thus the diarys vital importance lies in alerting the reader to Lauds fear of public predestinarian debate, and the importance he placed on the hearing at Woodstock in conjunction to this, though further speculation is required if the extent of significance the latter held for him is to be fully understood. Though McGees argues that Laud placed great value on the beauty of holiness, as he believed that the people would not respect the inward part of religion, the greater part, if the outward face were neglected17, extraordinarily little evidence to substantiate this can be found within the diary. Laud briefly writes of his desire to repair St. Pauls, and visits made to consecrate and view various parish churches, yet does not mention anything on the reforms implemented within them, nor his views on the controversy these changes caused, which is rather peculiar considering at his trial in 1645 he stated that for his whole career he had laboured nothing more, than the external worship of God (too much slighted in most parts of this kingdom) might be preserved18. Most divisive of these interior reforms was the charge to alter the placement of the Communion table from the centre of the church to the upper end of the chancel north and south and a rail before it or round it to keep it from annoyance19, which is usually accredited by historians as highly significant; indeed it is the only point out of thirteen in Lauds June 1635 Metropolitical Visitation Charge which is completely new. It is therefore surprising that nothing is mentioned in the diary of the November 1633 case of St. Gregorys, which held great importance because of its usage as a test case, in that Laud and Charles brought the relatively minor issue of the complaints of the St. Gregorys parishioners concerning the altar policy before the Privy Council in order to use their ruling as the national example. Davies argues that Charles was the chief enthusiast of the altar policy, because he believed that the communion table, as the seat of Gods presence in church, should be shown as much respect as his own throne, and thus its elevation was a visual and mnemonic means of impressing a greater respect for his pretensions to divine right20, and indeed if it was Charles who pushed for the reform, whilst Lauds support was only half-hearted, this could explain why nothing is recorded on the issue in his dairy. However, from records of the St. Gregorys hearing this does not seem plausible as it is Laud, not Charles, who attempted to drive the policy forwards; it is he who highlights the importance of consistency within the church and the significance of St. Gregorys close proximity to St. Pauls; when strangers come from beyond the sea and saw the table stand altar wise in St. Pauls but out at the door and saw the table stand otherwise in St. Gregorys, what a disunion would they say was in the Church of England, and he who argues the legality of the reform due to its basis in tradition, citing a ruling made under Queen Elizabeth that the communion table should be set in the chancel21. Although Charles ruled against the parishioners of St. Gregorys, his verdict in fact limited the extent of effective altar reform, as he left the decision of how the communion table should be placed to the discretion of each parish ordinary whose place and function it doth belong to give direction22, and therein lies the most probable explanation for Lauds silence; as he only achieved a half-victory at the hearing, it is plausible that he did not wish to record it due to disappointment, or perhaps anger. Nevertheless, despite this conjecture, it remains questionable that so little is mentioned of the other ceremonial and aesthetical reforms that were implemented under Laud, thus the possibility must be considered, despite the claims of multiple historians, that they were not as prominent a concern in Lauds daily life as other ecclesiastical aims. Last, and most important of Lauds key aims as argued by McGee, was that of his desire to re-establish the authority of the Church of England, an objective which stemmed from his belief that since the Reformation in the late 1530s the church had greatly diminished in power and influence. The loss of lands after the dissolution of the monasteries had led to a reduction of church income and eventual deficit of wealth, a concern of Lauds that is most clearly demonstrated in his diary entry of March 1624, in which his suggestion is recorded that, for the sake of the poorer priests, the four subsidies voted by the Clergy in Convocation should be paid by instalments. The idea was first presented by Laud to the Duke of Buckingham and Lord Durham, who strongly approved of the notion, and affirmed that, it was the best office that was done for the Church this seven years. However, when suggested to James, the proposal was met with his grave displeasure and the comment that never any Bishop attempted the like at any time, nor would any but myself have done it. That I had given the Church such a wound, in speaking to any laity to it23; a reaction which is very telling of the strength and singularity of Lauds determination if none but he would have dared propose schemes which benefited the clergy at the cost of the crown. From Lauds arguably rather impertinent response to James that I thought I had done a very good office for the Church: and so did my betters think. And I hoped, being done out of a good mind, for the support of many poor vicars who must needs sink under three subsidies in a year, my error (if it were one) was pardonable, the strength of Lauds feelings on the issue are indisputable as despite James strong negative reaction, Laud appears loath to relinquish his position on the matter, or admit his proposal as a mistake. Such devotion to the restoration of church wealth can also be seen through examination of Lauds attentions to Ireland, reports of the dearth of which had shocked him to such an extent that he avowed in his list of Things which I have projected to if God bless me in them, that he would procure King Charles to give all the impropriations, yet remaining in the crown, within the realm of Ireland, to that poor Church. 4 Lauds letters to Strafford verify that he did indeed acquaint his Majesty with this, and he likes it well25, which arguably demonstrates his particular fervency for this aim; having already experienced James severe displeasure when proposing a similar scheme which involved the loss of his own wealth in order to benefit the clergy, it is surprising that he risked a similar negative reaction from Charles, though it is possible he was more confident of his compliance with this aim.

Theory of Knowledge Essay †Philosophy

Theory of Knowledge Essay – Philosophy Free Online Research Papers Theory of Knowledge Essay Philosophy For over the millennia, philosophers have questioned whether knowledge exists and if we know anything at all. The product from uncertainty is the theory of knowledge. It is actually quite hard to define knowledge; the dictionary defines knowledge as general awareness or possession of information, facts, ideas, truths, or principles but philosophers define knowledge as a belief which is in agreement with the facts. A belief is generally defined as acceptance by the mind that something is true or real, often underpinned by an emotional or spiritual sense of certainty. The question is do we know what a fact is and what sort of parallel corresponds these two? This is the difference between â€Å"I am certain† and â€Å"it is certain†. When we say â€Å"I am certain†, we already know who the subject is: it is I. When we say â€Å"it is certain†, who or what is the subject? â€Å"I am certain† generally relates to a belief. You can be certain on something like â€Å"I am certain that I will win the race† but someone else may hold that to be false because they say the same thing. There is like tug-of-war between the two’s thoughts but whoever wins the war doesn’t mean their certainty is higher than anyone else’s belief. So who will win the race? What if someone else, who didn’t have that belief won, and then wouldn’t your belief be shattered? â€Å"I am certain† makes one feel better. It is mostly bias and are opinionated predictions based on numerous factors like emotion, spiritual sense, life experiences, etc. because the subject is I. Humans are known to be selfish and greedy throughout history. The degree of certainty is very low and therefore it is not trustworthy. What about â€Å"it is certain†? We don’t know who the subject is in this statement. ‘It’ could be anything from news to time. Depending on the subject and the statement proposed, the degree of certainty varies. If the subject was news, we couldn’t trust everything we read. When the Apollo 11 made the first landing on the moon in 1969, it was world news and everyone held that to be true for decades. In the middle of the 1990s, people started to question whether this was a hoax or not. When the bombing of the World Trade Center happened on September 11, 2001, there were photos and thousands of eyewitness accounts to reinforce the statement â€Å"it is certain†. We could be certain there is an attack on that day because eyewitness accounts exceed the numbers on the Apollo 11 mission by couple of thousand times. Therefore the level of certainty is higher. â€Å"It is certain† is based on factors like environment, eyewitness accou nts, evidence, etc. The level of certainty is higher than that of â€Å"I am certain†. Since fact is undefined at this point, what do we need for a knowledge claim to be held valid? Conviction is used by everyone everyday for a knowledge claim. Conviction also has a twist and turn and knowledge claims made by convictions changes over time. When teachers teach, they use their authority to implicate to the students that their teachings are true. Their authority is their conviction. Students will believe their teachers until they reached a new conclusion from something more convincing. Since absolute truth doesn’t exist in this dimension, we might as well believe anything that looks convincing to us. Nothing is fixed and doubt will always be with us. People will believe anything that looks convincing. For example, the landing on the moon looked convincing enough so people believed NASA but over the decades, their conviction was doubted and some people no longer held that to be valid. Accepting passionate, personal belief as knowledge is easy for oneself because the origin of the belief comes from you. For someone else to take in your personal beliefs, they consider many factors such as seriousness, possibility, levels of conviction, etc. first before accepting it. If someone says â€Å"I can eat five cheeseburgers for dinner† you may actually find that convincing because it is possible versus someone who says â€Å"I can eat fifty cheeseburgers† then you might not believe them. If someone were talking to you about their religion then you might find it hard to believe them because you have more faith in your own religion. Faith and self-confidence also play key roles in determining acceptations of personal beliefs. If someone has low self-confidence and little faith in their own beliefs, then they are more likely to believe someone else. If someone has strong faith and high self-esteem, then they have a strong barrier against invasion. Knowledge is still being researched and explored by many today. There are different levels of certainty for a belief. All beliefs are bias though and nothing in this world is pristine. People find something to be true if it looks convincing enough to them. Truth has many forms, but none in which we can see with our naked eye. Research Papers on Theory of Knowledge Essay - PhilosophyComparison: Letter from Birmingham and CritoEffects of Television Violence on ChildrenThree Concepts of PsychodynamicBook Review on The Autobiography of Malcolm XTrailblazing by Eric AndersonMoral and Ethical Issues in Hiring New EmployeesRelationship between Media Coverage and Social andIncorporating Risk and Uncertainty Factor in CapitalCapital PunishmentUnreasonable Searches and Seizures

Last man and overman Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Last man and overman - Essay Example Plato believes that desire and thinking are in the body not of the body. However, Nietzsche thinks that last man comes from repression of body and instincts. Without the body, the soul cannot move beyond itself and see things objectively. Plato believes that the essence of soul is out there, beyond itself and is moving. Nietzsche agrees it is moving, although he claims that essence is secured in body. Ego and will both have contempt for the body but both have contentment in their thinking and desires. During studying this text, we can understand that the soul of the last man is not able to create beyond itself, but the soul of the overman is able to create beyond itself. There are some characteristics of the last man, such as cruelty, the longest life (because he has a great knowledge of health), happiness, reason, and virtue. If you deny the body, your sense cannot go beyond yourself and material things. The origin of the last man was already in Plato’s doctrine. Ego, will, and soul mean thinking, desire or will, and spirit respectively. The spirit of ego, will, and desire must be changed into the postmodern view on the soul and postmodern form. Soul controls the body of the last man, while the body controls soul in behalf of body. Soul is complete and it is never equal to body. Soul is in the body but not of the body. It goes towards rationality. The soul of the last man is the soul away from the body. Soul is like spirit, ego, thinking, and desire. Soul has contempt for the body, but it is only a spirit. Soul as spirit is immoral. Spirit without the body is the structure of the soul of last man. The soul cannot go beyond manmade happiness. The chapter â€Å"On the Despisers of the Body†, you are what your body is â€Å"Body am I, and soul†. The body created the ego and the spirit and it serves to itself. The self is the body and the spirit that the body created. The body is a great intelligence and the ruling part of

Texas Attorney General Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Texas Attorney General - Research Paper Example Secure confinement indicates that the court has committed a juvenile into the secure juvenile correctional facility’s custody for duration of a specific program that can run over a few months or many years. The detention of juveniles does not intend to be punitive; rather, they receive care that is consistent with that of the parent in the secure custody. The local jurisdiction or the state have the responsibility of providing recreation, counseling, education, assessment, health services and other required services in a youth’s maintenance and well-being in their custody. Reservations in the secure detention are for the juveniles who pose a threat to the safety of the public. Status offenders like juveniles who are charged with alcohol possession or running away from home may be held for only 24 hours or less. There are five types of residential programs in which juveniles are detained. These programs include camps, detention, corrections, residential treatment and community based. The wide placement variety options are because there is no uniform in these programs (Lissitz, Green, 1975). The youths are supposed to be accorded the appropriate services either in confinement facilities or in the detention centers. The services available differ from the different facilities but generally, the services and programs provided are geared towards the juvenile needs. The function of the facilities is to rehabilitate the youth. The service that offers primary rehabilitation is education and it is mandatory to the detained youth (Marx, 1998). The juvenile facilities that run schools, which are highly effective, provide general equivalency diploma preparation, high school curriculum, special education and opportunities of vocational training. The issues of major concerns in these centers are ineffectiveness and overcrowding. The facilities can create instability regarding simple logistics and become unstable and it becomes

Gap in Gender Pay Essay Example for Free

Gap in Gender Pay Essay INTRODUCTION: Although women are steadily making their mark in the business world and heading major corporations, the question remains, are they still earning less than their male counterparts? Throughout time there has been a definite difference between men and women and their median income. This wage gap cuts across a wide spectrum of occupations. However, in 1963 the Equal Pay Act was signed making it illegal for employers to pay unequal wages to men and women who hold the same job and do the same work. There may be many reasons for this gap in salaries; most of them may not be necessarily based on gender. The following research will investigate what causes the gap in earnings, if any, and examines various factors that may have an effect on the earnings of men and women. I. RESEARCH PURPOSE The purpose of this research is to determine whether or not women who are working the same types of jobs, with the same amount of education and experience are being compensated the same as men. Although women have made a significant pace in entering the workforce and in exploring a wider range of occupations, they may still be treading behind in wages earned compared to their male counterparts. Many years ago, it was thought that because women were not as well educated as men, did not have as much experience as men, and did not work as hard as men that the range of pay should not be the same. This is no longer true and women have been graduating from college at the same rate as men and are working just as hard as men. However, the wage gap between men and women remains and nationally, women earn 77 cents for every $1 earned by men (Head, 2008). Thus, despite a sense of continued progress toward gender equality in the workplace the gap between men and women still persists. The significance of this research issue may reveal an underlying discrimination between the sexes that many may believe has narrowed. The importance in equality of gender pay is not only that it is the right thing to do, but an equitable and competitive pay package improves employee recruitment and retention.  This concept benefits both the employer and the employee, male or female. Nonetheless, as long as this gap remains the more likely this issue will provide a main source of debate among the organizational workforce. II. PROBLEM DEFINITION: The study, by the American Association of University Women Educational Foundation, found that 10 years after college, women earn only 69% of what men earn. (USA Today, 2007) Defining the problem starts with an examination of the evidence to determine how big the gap truly is and whether discrimination is to blame. Essential variables that may have an impact on male-female wage differential such as ethnic background, age, and industry will be measured. Our team will research and find out how big the gap is what could be the cause, factors such as: a). Hours of work- some tend to think that men are more likely to work longer hours. b). Education levels-some tend to think that men on average is higher qualified and women invest less in their education. c). Workforce participation and experience-industries tend to think that women spend less time at work because of their domestic responsibilities to their children and family. The majority of organizations assume that young women are going to leave the workforce when they have children, and therefore will not promote them. d). Why is there such a gap between the amount on a mans paycheck compared to a womans? e). Occupation type- some think women are looking for an easy way out and they tend to seek out and cluster around a few occupations and industries because of the tastes of employers, male employees and customers. f). Are women given the same opportunities for advancement as men? Our team will investigate what percentage of these factors contributes to the difference in pay between these two genders and seek to find out if discrimination plays a part in this pay gap and will the gap disappear through educational achievements. Why do woman not have equal job opportunities? Jobs held by women pay less than jobs held by men, even though the job requires the same education and skills. A newly hired woman will get a lower paying assignment than a man who started working there the same time for the same employer. Not only that also, women do not receive the equal chances in promotions like men. Equal pay has been an issue for all working women for the past few decades. III. RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS While some studies may reflect a sense of continued progress towards gender equality in the workplace, the federal government currently confirms that the workplace earnings gap amongst men and women is still prevalent today (About Management.Com). It is the educated guess of this team that men are paid at a substantially increased rate for performance in positions than women are paid to operate in those same positions. This hypothesis is deducted from observations made from current work situations, random peer discussions, and updated articles. More than forty years after the Federal Equal Pay Act, hard working women are still being paid less than men are on the job. There are numerous speculations that can be made in an attempt to explain this is behavior, such as career selections being made by men and women. Women tend to make decisions about employment based on convenience, meaning that women migrate to positions that will allow for them to maintain a active home life and still maintain a 40 hour work week, whereas men will more than likely trade an active home life for longer work hours, safety risks, frequent travel, longer work hours and extended commuting times to make the higher pay. While these practices may not be fair, they are a reality. The research provided in this paper will lead to three possible outcomes; it will either prove that men are paid at higher rates than women to operate in the same or similar positions, women are paid at higher rates than men to operate in the same or similar position, or men and women break even when it comes to wages and position. References Head, Lauren Lawley. (2008, April 23). Pay Gap Worth Steaming Over: Bizwomen.com. Retrieved April 29, 2008, from http://www.bizjournals.com/bizwomen/index.php/2008/04/23/pay-gap-worth-steaming-over/ Coutts, Justin. (2004, February). Policy Backgrounder, Business Roundtable. Retrieved April 29, 2008 from http://www.nzbr.org.nz/documents/policy/policy-2004/PB_No1.pdf Arndt, Bettina. (2006,October 16). Herald Sun.com. Why Men are paid More. Retrieved April 29, 2008 from http://www.news.com.au/heraldsun/story/0,21985,20586168-5000117,00.html

Modern Art Essay -- Manet, Rembrandt, Gaugin

This paper references the following works: Olympia. Edouard Manet. 1863. Oil on canvas. H. 130; W. 190 cm. Paris, Musà ©e d'Orsay Self Portrait. Rembrandt. 1660. Oil on canvas. 31.61 x 26.5 cm. Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. Self Portrait Dedicated to Paul Gaugin. Vincent van Gogh. 1888. Oil on canvas. 60.5 x 49.4 cm. Fogg Art Museum, Harvard University Pieta. Anabale Carricci. 1600. Oil on canvas. 149 x 156 cm. Museo Nazionale di Capodimonte, Naples, Italy. Woman with Dead Child. Kathe Kollowitz. 1903. Etching. 39 x 48 cm. To the casual viewer, Modern art is often shocking, amusing, indecipherable and unnerving because art has always been understood in terms of traditional representation. However at the turn of the nineteenth century, European artists began to rebel against the institution of classical art. To gain success as an artist in Europe up until this time, acceptance by the Royal Academies of Art was essential (Rosenfeld 2000). The approved style was that of classical antiquity depicting idealised historical, mythological and religious scenes and because the Academies controlled official patronage for artists, they set the rules for standards of â€Å"beauty† in art (Rosenfeld 2000). However with the rise of modernity in the late nineteenth and early twentieth century, art theory evolved. Modernity in this period was characterised by rapid growth of industry and technology in the city, which meant substantial social and economic innovation across Europe. Feelings of anxiety and instabil ity accompanied this rapid transformation (Sturken and Cartwright 2009, 449) and lead to a self-conscious awareness within artists and consumers alike. So strongly were the changes felt that artists began reinterpreting traditional subject matter to reflect this new modern age. Ultimately, Modern artists sought truth over beauty, a concept which encompassed both the physicality of painting as a medium as well as the artist’s sense of self in an endeavour to create â€Å"pure† art (Greenberg). Academic art strove to overcome the limitations of painting as a medium; surface flatness, canvas structure and properties of paint pigment (Kleiner 2009, 822), to create illusions of space and aesthetics. Modern artists reacted by emphasising the same properties to communicate original insights and observations. However, the popular notion that Modernism was a... ...3857?accountid=10382 (accessed Feb 4, 2015) Figure 2. Olympia. Edouard Manet. 1863. Oil on canvas. H. 130; W. 190 cm. Paris, Musà ©e d'Orsay offered to the French State by public subscription initiated by Claude Monet, 1890 © RMN-Grand Palais (Musà ©e d'Orsay) / Hervà © Lewandowski. Reproduced from http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/cultureshock/flashpoints/visualarts/olympia_a.html (accessed Feb 4, 2015). Figure 3. Self Portrait. Rembrandt. 1660. Oil on canvas. 31.61 x 26.5 cm. Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. http://totallyhistory.com/self-portrait-altman/ (accessed Feb 4, 2015) Figure 4. Self Portrait Dedicated to Paul Gaugin. Vincent van Gogh. 1888. Oil on canvas. 60.5 x 49.4 cm. Fogg Art Museum, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA. http://www.ibiblio.org/wm/paint/auth/gogh/self/gogh.self-gauguin.jpg (accessed Feb 4, 2015) Figure 5. Pieta. Anabale Carricci. 1600. Oil on canvas. 149 x 156 cm. Museo Nazionale di Capodimonte, Naples, Italy. http://www.wikipaintings.org/en/annibale-carracci/pieta-1600 (accessed Feb 4, 2015) Figure 6. Woman with Dead Child. Kathe Kollowitz. 1903. Etching. 39 x 48 cm. oj0 http://hammer.ucla.edu/programs/detail/program_id/204 (accessed Feb 4, 2015)

Sleep Terrors

Sleep terrors are commonly known by a few terms, including sleep terrors, night terrors, sleep terror disorder, and pavor nocturnus. The person having a sleep terror will awaken from a dream crying or screaming, which may last for minutes. The person is difficult to awaken and confused. There is no recollection of the dream once awake. Sometimes the person can be violent by swinging their fists or punching. This paper will look in depth at sleep terrors and give a concise review of the causes, prevalence, treatment, symptoms, and safety measures in the sleep lab when dealing with sleep terrors. Definition The definition of sleep terrors is â€Å"a sleep disorder involving abrupt awakening from sleep in a terrified state† (Kiriakopoulos, 2005, p. 1). â€Å"The cause is unknown but night terrors are commonly associated with periods of emotional tension, stress, or conflict† (Kiriakopoulos, 2005). Overview To understand sleep terrors, you first need to understand normal sleep patterns. â€Å"Normal sleep cycles involve distinct stages from light drowsiness to deep sleep† (Kiriakopoulos, 2005, p. 1). These include REM and non-REM sleep. Non-REM sleep involves four stages. The normal sleeping person will have several cycles of REM and non-REM sleep through the night. Night terrors occur during deep sleep, which occurs during stages 3 and 4 of non-REM sleep, beginning approximately 90 minutes after falling asleep (Connelly, 2003) and they generally have a duration of 10 to 20 minutes. The patient usually screams in panic, but there is no memory of what caused them to be scared. (Kiriakopoulos, 2005) Sleep terrors are like nightmares but with certain distinct differences. Nightmares normally occur during REM sleep vs. sleep terrors occurring during deep sleep. Nightmares are most common in the early morning vs. sleep terrors occurring during the first one-third of the night. The sleeper can remember the details of a nightmare vs. a sleep terror, which cannot be remembered. Sleep terrors are not normal, but â€Å"nightmares are normal on occasion, especially after frightening movies/TV shows or emotional situations† (Kiriakopoulos, 2005, p. 1). â€Å"The sleep disorder of night terrors typically occurs in children aged 3-12 years, with a peak onset in children aged 3? years† (Connelly, 2005, p. 1). Boys, girls, and children of all races are equally affected by sleep terrors. An estimated 1-6% of children experience night terrors† (Connelly, 2005,p. 1). Sleep terrors can be familiar. By adolescence, most children have outgrown sleep terrors. (Connelly, 2005) Sleep terrors can run in families. Although uncommon, adults may have sleep terrors but they are associated â€Å"with emotional tension and/or the use of alcohol† (Kiriakopoulos, 2005, p. 1). Although sleep terrors are â€Å"not directly caused by a general medical condition or substance use, including medications and drugs of abuse, these symptoms cause clinically important distress or impair work, social or personal functioning† (Narcolepsy Association UK, 2003). Diagnosis â€Å"Usually, a complete history and a physical examination are sufficient to diagnose night terrors† (Connolly, 2003, p. 6). Review of symptoms is necessary for accurate diagnosis of all sleep disorders. In many cases, considering the symptoms, no tests are necessary. (Kiriakopoulos, 2005) It is important to rule out seizure disorders and nightmares when making the differential diagnosis of sleep terror. (Narcolepsy Association UK, 2003) This may include an electroencephalogram (EEG) which measures brain activity and can rule out a seizure disorder, or a sleep study to rule out other sleep disorders. Other tests such as CT Scans and MRI’s are unnecessary. (Connelly, 2003) The cause is unknown. Sleep terrors are frequently brought on by â€Å"stress, fever, sleep deprivation, and medications that affect the central nervous system† (Connelly, 2003, p. 2). Symptoms Symptoms of sleep terrors include sudden awakening from sleep. â€Å"During each episode the patient shows evidence of marked fear and autonomic arousal, such as rapid breathing, rapid heartbeat and sweating† (Narcolepsy Association UK, 2003). When awakened from the sleep terror, the person is difficult to comfort and is unable to explain what happened or recall the dream, though they may have a sense of being frightened. â€Å"They will have no memory of the event on awakening the next day† Kiriakopoulos, 2005, p. 1). Thankfully, sleep terrors generally only occur once per night. (Narcolepsy Association UK, 2003) Treatment, Prognosis, And Prevention There is no true treatment for sleep terrors. It is important to â€Å"educate the family about the disorder and reassuring them that the episodes are not harmful† (Connelly, 2003, p. ). â€Å"Comfort and reassurance are the only treatment required† (Kiriakopoulos, 2005, p. 1). It is important for parents of children with sleep disorders to take the following precautions. â€Å"Make the child’s room safe to prevent the child from being injured during an episode, eliminate all sources of sleep disturbance, and maintaining a consistent bedtime routin e and wake-up time† (Connelly, 2003, p. 7). When medication is used, it is benzodiazepine or benadryl given just prior to or at bedtime. These medications will reduce sleep terrors. Although rare, â€Å"in severe cases, in which daily activities (for example, school performance or peer or family relations) are affected† (Connelly, 2003, p. 8), the person may require antidepressant therapy. â€Å"Minimizing stress or using coping mechanisms may reduce night terrors. The number of episodes usually decreases after age 10† (Sheth, 2005, p. 1). Most children outgrow night terrors. When this does not occur, â€Å"stress reduction and/or psychotherapy may be helpful for sleep terror in adults† (Kiriakopoulos, 2005, p. 1). â€Å"Night terrors may also be treated with hypnosis and guided imagery echniques† (Narcolepsy Association UK, 2003, p. 1). There are also support groups available. Role of the Polysomnographic Technologist The sleep technologist is responsible for the patient during the polysomnography study. The technologist needs to have reviewed the patient’s questionnaire and be prepared for the outburst and confusion that may occur during a sleep terror event. The technologist needs skills to comfort and protect the patient during a terror. The patient may be combative so the technologist would need to be able to protect the patient and any near him from hitting and punching that could occur. It would be important to be able to gently restrain them so they are both comforted and safe. Polysomnographic Record Of A 3 Year Old With Sleep Terror Disorder Summary/Conclusion Sleep terror disorder is a sleep disorder that involves waking from deep sleep in a panic. The person is difficult to arouse and confused. If they can recall any of the dream at that time, when they wake then next day, they will not remember that the terror even occurred. The disorder occurs mostly in young children before their teen years begin. Most children out grow the disorder, but some adults are affected. Diagnosis is simple, requiring few tests. Treatment is mostly supportive requiring education of the family and comfort of the individual with the sleep terror disorder. In rare cases, psychotherapy and/or counseling may be necessary if it affect the persons daily functioning and relationships. Sleep terrors are very interesting to me. I have never even known anyone with terrors, and but the prevalence is enough that most people should know someone with the disorder. Although the diagnosis is usually easy, the sleep technologist has a role in the diagnosis when more than the patient’s symptoms are needed.